Abstract
Understanding land degradation in a semi-arid Mediterranean environment is very
difficult because of the contributing factors: precipitation, infiltration vegetation
cover and discontinuity of flow and the temporal and spatial levels of resolution at
which these factors are acting. Therefore it is sensible to attempt to linearize these
relations to make them more amenable to
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research. One way, used in this thesis is
the Representative Elementary Area (REA). The value of the REA-concept was
investigated as a tool to overcome the problem of different levels of resolution of the
factors contributing to the runoff in various sized catchments. Based on the REA, it is
possible to define a resolution at which runoff can be described by simple equations
because;
The variability in runoff response of the catchment size has reached a
minimum compared to smaller sized areas with a more variable runoff
response.
The runoff response of this area is independent the spatial distribution of the
characteristics that control runoff and only dependent of its statistical
distribution.
The study area in Southern Spain was selected because its geomorphological setting,
soil types and vegetation patterns are representative for large areas in the
Mediterranean basin. The 9 studied catchments were selected in an area that is
known to channel runoff though well-developed streambeds in limestone. The
measurement set-up was nested: first order catchments with in them second and
third order catchments were selected varying in size between 0.4 and 111 ha. They
are covered by natural vegetation with an open structure. In some parts they are
covered by afforested terraces, which consist of disturbed soils planted with
indigenous pine trees that have not been developed well so far. At some parts, the
terraces are not installed according the contour lines.
The vegetation cover of the catchment was parameterised at two levels of
resolution by the use of satellite images;
As classified land cover units.
As percentage surface cover per unit area.
The land cover units ‘natural woodland’, ‘grassland’, ‘afforested terraces’ and ‘bare
soil’ were obtained by conventional supervised classification of the available
Landsat imagery. The images were used for Spectral Mixture Analysis (SMA) by
which information was obtained on the percentage of cover of the dominant
vegetation species Pinus halepensis and Stipa tenacissima per pixel. The Landsat TM
images have only six broad wavelength bands. Furthermore the spectral reflectance of the dominant vegetation species Pinus halepensis, Stipa tenacissima and the
unvegetated soil surface resemble each other. This lead to limited results of SMA.
The most important components of the water balance, precipitation,
infiltration and runoff, were studied by detailed fieldwork. The precipitation was
characterised by a large number of small rainfall events. Both the storm duration
and the rainfall intensity had a skew distribution. The log-transformed rainfall
intensity and storm duration resulted in a power-law relation by which the
threshold conditions for the occurrence of runoff in second and third order
streambeds could be defined. The spatial distribution of rainfall could not be related
to topographic features such as aspect and altitude but showed variability within the
studied catchments.
Infiltration was characterised by the estimation of the saturated hydraulic
conductivity (Ks). Proxies were used to find a proper method to map the Ks over the
study area. The Ks values were significantly related to the classified units of the land
cover map. The variability of Ks within a land cover unit was larger than the
variability of the Ks between plant and interplant areas, so it was concluded that Ks
was not related to surface cover.
Runoff was recorded at the outlet of 9 catchments of which several were
nested within each other. The runoff coefficients were very small and decreased with
increasing catchment surface which indicated the loss of runoff during transmission
in the streambed. Based on the grouped rainfall-runoff recordings it was not possible
to define a rainfall-runoff relation which can be used for all catchments. When the
rainfall-runoff recordings were grouped into levels of resolution based on the
catchment sizes, rainfall-runoff relations were found for each level of resolution
which means that the rainfall runoff relation depends on the catchment size.
Based on the decreasing variability of runoff with increasing catchment size,
the catchments varying from 9.2 – 111 ha. were defined as the catchments in which
the variability of runoff had reached a low value, which was one of the constraints
for the definition of a REA. This implies that the size of a REA in the study area
would be 9.2 ha. For the all catchments ranging from 0.4 – 111 ha. log-linear
equations were found by which a rough but quick prediction of runoff was possible
based on the channel bottom width, the catchment size and the percentage of the
catchment surface that consisted of ‘bare soil’ and ‘afforested terraces’. The relation
between the catchment size and the runoff amount or the peak discharge was a
power-law relation which indicated that the variation of runoff was self-similar at all
levels of resolution, also in the catchment sizes ranging from 0.4 – 2.2 ha. that did not
match the REA-constraints.
A distributed hydrological model was developed to test the influence of the
spatial distribution of land cover units on the runoff amount and peak discharge.
The results showed that the peak discharge and runoff amount would increase if
‘bare soil’ and ‘afforested terraces’ were to be located nearer the streambed than in
the present situation. When the land cover units ‘bare soil’ and ‘afforested terraces’
cover 50 % or more of the catchment, a random spatial distribution of these land
cover units also results in an increasing runoff amount and peak discharge.
Obviously, an increase of the areas of ‘afforested terraces’ and ‘bare soil’ will result
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