Abstract
The object of this study is to examine the processes that have lead to the establishment and significance of soccer clubs of immigrants in The Netherlands. Further, a comparison has been made between the immigrant soccer players who are involved in ethnic enclave sport and immigrant soccer players who are
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involved in mix sport. Specifically, we focused on the integration background of the immigrants. Data has been gathered and analyzed through qualitative and quantitative methodologies, and is complemented by dept interviews, historical analysis with informants, document analysis, participation observation and survey. The data reveals that the organizational development of immigrant soccer clubs has been taken place in three phases, namely: pre-official phase, formalizing phase and take-off phase. Further, the establishment of immigrants’ soccer clubs has been taken place in three different tracks: 1. A reconstruction of the immigrants soccer clubs and networks originated from the country of origin; 2. Intra-ethnic differentiation within existing immigrant soccer clubs in the hosting country; 3. As a matter of coloring of the existing white soccer clubs, new soccer clubs are established on basis of diversity and inter-ethnic differentiation. The foundation of immigrant soccer clubs has been influenced by clusters of factors, related to the country of origin, the host country and on club level. This research has demonstrated that the ethnic opportunity structure in the country of origin, the political opportunity structure in the country of residence, the immigrant process and the cultural and political opportunity within the existing clubs, together play a important role in shaping the differential immigrant soccer clubs and it has also demonstrated that the they differ from each other in the combination of factors that relay on the structural, cultural, interactional, institutional perspectives. Soccer clubs can be compared with an arena (De Ruijter 2000). The data exposes that immigrants as well as white soccer clubs are sensitive to maintain their own cultural identities. As a result, soccer offers an outstanding opportunity for demonstrating and safeguarding ones identity. This makes it also difficult to manage soccer clubs that are dealing with people from different cultural background within one and the same club. According to Bourdieu (1991), Elling (2000) and Verweel (2000) sport is related to class and is used to maintain class and cultural differences. According to the functionalist perspective, sport contributes to the integration of people from different cultural backgrounds, due to consensus in dominant values and norms which foster the corporate culture. According to the data, soccer clubs that, as a matter of coloring process in the direct living area, are facing the inflow of people from different cultural backgrounds, are dealing with a differentiated club culture. Immigrants’ soccer clubs contribute to the development of bonding, linking and bridging capital. The development of bonding social capital and strengthening cultural identities is in the first place an important condition for the significant meaning of their bridging social capital. Furthermore, this research shows that the immigrants who are related to ethnic enclave soccer and immigrants who are playing in mix soccer clubs, participate more or less on equal level in the labor market. They differ mainly in their social cultural integration. The first group is more oriented on its own culture and identity and maintains transnational contact without being hindered in their integration process in the Dutch society. A similar finding has been demonstrated by Verweel (2006).
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