Abstract
The high spatial pressure and the historically egalitarian character make the Netherlands an interesting country for investigating environmental equity (the distribution of environmental burdens and amenities across socio-economic categories). This study developed an approach for analysing environmental equity and assessed the environmental equity situation. The driving forces underlying this situation
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were explored and the situation was interpreted in terms of justice. The distribution of environmental conditions across income categories was analysed quantitatively for the Netherlands as a whole, and for two highly urbanised regions (Rijnmond region and Amsterdam Airport region). Traffic noise, NO2, external safety risks and availability of public green space were selected as environmental indicators. A distinction was made between 'bads' (failures to meet prevailing standards) and 'goods' (compliance with standards or target values). The accumulation of these indicators was also considered. Lower income categories generally live in slightly worse environmental conditions. Most differences occurred at lower levels of noise and NO2, and were generally found to be small. For availability of public green areas, however, these differences were larger. Remarkably, in the two study regions, higher incomes were exposed more to air traffic noise than lower incomes. Furthermore, income-related differences for accumulated 'goods' were larger in these regions compared to the Netherlands as a whole. By using legal standards to realize a safe and healthy environment for all, the state plays an important role in the distribution of environmental 'bads'. It does not intentionally favour certain social-economic groups. This egalitarian approach is one explanation for the limited exceedance of standards despite continuing economic growth. However, exposure to 'bads' differs between income categories. Where spatial pressure is high, some standards are exceeded more often. Where national economic interests are involved, environmental regulations may be adapted. This utilitarian approach is found in our two study regions. Environmental 'goods' are mainly distributed by market forces (a libertarian approach). More expensive homes are often built in better locations, particularly in regions where spatial pressure is high. The public influences environmental equity by buying the homes they can afford, and by participating in decision-making processes. Their perceptions of local environmental quality sometimes differ from actual environmental quality. These discrepancies are larger in groups with a lower socio-economic status than in groups with a higher socio-economic status. They are less often actively involved with their neighbourhood, and feel less responsible for liveability in their neighbourhood. Lower incomes are also annoyed more often than higher incomes. This may mean that they are less active in defending their environmental interests. Larger environmental inequalities may be the result. Environmental equity merits more attention in the Netherlands. Generally speaking, lower incomes live in worse environmental) conditions, and they are less effective when defending their residential environment. Their inferior health status may make their health more vulnerable to environmental factors. The gradual shift to a more market-oriented society may result in larger inequalities. Environmental equity could be included in the usual environmental impact assessments, which could state the distributional effects of policy decisions, provide for equal participation in decision-making processes and equal access to environmental information, and perhaps also include other aspects of the residential environment.
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